understanding of entrepreneurship

Actually the definition of entrepreneurship is quite varied, but here we are trying to create a definition of entrepreneurship in general and everyday language.

As we know comes from the word entrepreneurship entrepreneurship and self-employment consists of two words, namely, entrepreneurial meaning warrior, hero, warrior, superior, heroic, while the other one is a word that means the business works, do something.

Thus the notion of entrepreneurship in terms of the meaning of the word is a tough guy who does something. But if a more detailed definition of entrepreneurship here we will take from several sources.

Referring to the Minister of Cooperation and Development of Small businessmen 961/KEP/M/XI/1995 number, stated that:

Entrepreneurs are people who have the spirit, attitude, behavior and entrepreneurial abilities.

Entrepreneurship is a passion, attitude, behavior and ability to handle business or activity directed to seek, create and implement ways of working, new technology and products to improve efficiency in order to provide better service and or earn greater profits.

Entrepreneurship or the French language is called entrepreneurship and if translated literally as intermediaries has meaning, defined as self-attitudes and behaviors that can incorporate elements of creativity, taste and work or be able to combine elements of creativity, challenge, hard work and satisfaction to achieve maximum performance.

Stoner, James: entrepreneurship is the ability to take the factors of production-labor land, labor and capital-use it to produce goods or services. Entrepreneurs recognize opportunities that are not seen or ignored by other business executives.

TYPE OF ORDER REACTION

1. Order zero

The reaction is said of order zero to one if the change in concentration of reactants pereaksinya does not affect the rate of reaction. That is, as long as there is a certain amount, it does not change the concentration of reactants affect the rate of reaction.

Integration is obtained: [A] t =-kt + [A0] By making the plot [A] against t will get a straight line with a slope (slope) =-k

2. Order One

An order of the reaction is said to one pereaksinya if the reaction rate is proportional to the concentration of reactants that. For example, the concentration of reactants is folded triple the rate would be 31 or 3 times greater. When the equation ln [A] t =-kt + ln [A0] is the graph ln [A] t the opponent, then obtained a straight line with slope =-k, while cruising (intercept) = ln [A] 0

3. Order Two

Said to be of order of a reaction to one of the two reactants if the reaction rate is the square of the concentration of reactants that. If the concentration of it folded triple, the rate would be 32 or 9 times greater.

The process of formation of petroleum

A. The process of formation of petroleum

Discusses the identification of petroleum can not be separated from the discussion theory of petroleum formation and formation conditions that make an oil specific and not to be the same between the oil with petroleum. Since I was a chemist, so I approach to do more than the chemical aspects of the geological aspects. An understanding of the process of formation of petroleum will be needed as a material consideration in interpreting the results of the identification. There are many hypotheses about the formation of petroleum raised by experts, some of which are:

B. The theory of biogenesis (Organic)

Macqiur (France, 1758) is the one who first put forward the idea that oil derived from plants. Then M.W. Lamanosow (Russia, 1763) also suggested the same thing. The opinions above are also supported by other scholars such as, New Beery (1859), Engler (1909), Bruk (1936), Bearl (1938) and Hofer. They stated that: "The oil and gas from marine organisms that have died millions of years ago and formed a layer in the earth."

C. The theory of abiogenesis (Inorganic)

Barthelot (1866) suggested that there is oil in the alkali metals, which in a free state with a high temperature will be in contact with CO2 to form asitilena. Then Mandeleyev (1877) suggested that petroleum is formed due to the influence of working steam on metal carbides in the earth. Even more extreme is the claim that some experts argued that oil started to form since prehistoric times, long before the Earth was formed, and in conjunction with the formation of the earth. The statement is based on facts discovered hydrocarbon material in some meteor rocks and in the atmosphere some other planet.

Of the many hypotheses that are often raised is the theory of biogenesis, as it could be. The theory of the formation of petroleum continue to evolve with the development of technology and engineering analysis of petroleum, until later in 1984 G. D. Hobson in his article entitled "The Occurrence and Origin of Oil and Gas".

Based on the theory of biogenesis, petroleum is formed due to a small leak permanently in the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is occurring between the atmosphere to the earth's surface, which is described by the two arrows in the opposite direction, where the carbon is transported in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. In the first direction, assimilate carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which means that CO2 extracted from the atmosphere by photosynthetic organisms land and sea.

At the direction of the second CO2 released back into the atmosphere through respiration of living things (plants, animals, and microorganisms). In this process, a small leak that allows a small portion of carbon that are not released back into the atmosphere in the form of CO2, but that eventually transformed into fossils that can be burned. Fossil fuels is only a very small amount. Organic material is oxidized during burial. Consequently, the major part of the organic carbon in the form of a very small carbonate in sedimentary rocks.

At first these compounds (such as carbohydrates, protein and fat) produced by living creatures according to their needs, such as self-defense, to breed or as a physical component and living it. The components in question may be constituents of cells, membranes, pigments, fat, sugar or protein from plants, fungi, yeast, protozoa, bacteria, invertebrates or cold-blooded animals and the heat, so it can be found in the air, on the surface, in water or in the soil.

When living things die, then 99.9% of carbon compounds and living will again experience the cycle of the food chain, while the remaining 0.1% of the compounds of carbon trapped in the soil and in sediments. This is what is the origin of compounds known as fossil or petroleum embryos.

These embryos had a transfer and will accumulate in one place that may be a reservoir and there is a drift with the flow of water to accumulate at the bottom of the sea, and there is also due to differences in pressure below the sea surface and accumulate on the surface and some are terendapkan at sea level in the small current.

Small Embryo accumulate in humid environmental conditions, dark and smells of the minerals and sediment, and form large molecules known as geopolymer. Organic compounds buried will remain with their respective characters that correspond to specific materials and environment creation. Furthermore, these organic compounds will undergo geological processes deep within the earth. First akanmengalami diagenesis process, wherein the organic compound and a compound beings are dead and buried up to 600 meters below the surface and the temperature below 50 ° C.

In this condition of organic compounds originating and living beings began to lose force oxygenated due to decarboxylation reaction and dehidratasi. The deeper burial of the case, the hot environment, the addition of depth of 30-40 m will be rising the temperature of 1 ° C. In more depth and 600 m to 3000 m, burial temperatures will range between 50 - 150 ° C, a process called geologic both katagenesis will take place, then the pent geopolymer Mulal unraveled due to geothermal.

The components of petroleum in the process began to take shape and compounds derived characteristics and certain living creatures released back of the molecule. When the depth continues towards the center of the earth, the more the temperature rises, and if the depth exceeds 3000 m and temperatures above 150 ° C, the organic materials can be broken down into small bermolekul gas, and this process is called metagenesis.

Once the process is bypassed geology, petroleum is formed together with bio-markers. Molecular fossils that have been formed will undergo displacement (migration) due to environmental conditions or the earth's crust are always moving average as far as 5 cm per year, so it will be trapped in a porous rock, or the next will migrate to form an oil well. If the sampled rock is jailed oil (host rock) or oil trapped in the cavity of the earth, to be found fossilized organic compounds. Fossils of these compounds were determined structure uses several methods of analysis, so as to explain the origin of fossils, forming materials, petroleum migration, and the relationship between the oil with another oil and petroleum relationship with the host rock.

stationary point

1. DETERMINING THE COEFFICIENT OF ARAN tangents

    (Gradient) at the point (x1y1) on the curve y = f (x)

   

m = f '(x1)

f '(x1) means the value of the derivative f (x) at the point with abscissa x = x1,

Note:

Especially for a quadratic function. If the point does not lie on the graph, the gradient of the tangent is exemplified by m that found using the line equation y - y1 = m (x - x1) disinggungkan curve with equation y = f (x) with the condition D = 0 (D = discriminant of elimination results two equations)

2. DETERMINING THE FUNCTION monotonous

• The function y = f (x) monotonically rising at an interval,

                         if the interval is valid f '(x)> 0

• The function y = f (x) monotonically down on an interval,

                         if the interval is valid f '(x) <0

3. DETERMINING THE STATIONARY POINT

Function y = f (x) ® Terms stationary f '(x) = 0

TYPE - KIND

STATIONARY:

MAXIMUM

Terms: f '(x) = 0 ® x = x0 f'' (x0) <0 ® The maximum point (xo, f (xo))

MINIMUM

Terms: f '(x) = 0 ® x = x0 f'' (x0)> 0 ® Minimum point (xo, f (xo))

TURNING

Terms: f '(x) = 0 ® x = x0 f'' (x0) = 0 ® inflection point (xo, f (xo))

Stationary value is the value of a function at a stationary point abscissa

Description:

1. To determine the types of stationary point can also be searched by looking at the change marks around a stationary point.

   Steps:

   a. Determine abscissa stationary point condition f '(x) = 0 ® x = xo

   b. Create a number line f '(x)

   c. Determine the signs around the stationary point by substituting an arbitrary point on f '(x)

   d. Type the stationary point is determined by the change in sign around

       stationary point.

ket: f '(x)> 0 the graph up

       f '(x)> 0 the graph down

2. The maximum value / minimum of a function in a closed interval obtained from the stationary value or function in the interval of the value of the function at the end - the end of the interval

4. PHYSICS PROBLEM

If S (t) = distance (a function of time)

      V (t) = Speed ​​(function of time)

      a (t) = Acceleration (function of time)

          t = time

then V = dS / dt and a = dV / dt

5. TROUBLESHOOTING LIMIT

L'Hospital theorem

If the functions f and g respectively terdifferensir at x = a and f (a) = g (a) = 0 or f (a) = g (a) = ¥ thus:

 lim f (x) = 0 or lim f (x) = ¥, then

x ® a g (x) 0 x ® a g (x) ¥

 lim f (x) = lim f '(x) = ¥, then

x ® a g (x) x ® a g '(x) ¥

Petroleum Processing

Oil is mined is still a crude oil can not be used. To be used as a fuel and other applications, crude oil needs to be processed in oil refineries by distillation story with fractionation techniques. The basic principle of graded refining didihdi point is the difference between crude oil fractions. If the difference in boiling points is not much different from the distillation can not be applied (See Table 9.1).

Figure 9.5 Distillation of petroleum at night

Hydrocarbons which has the lowest boiling point will separate first, followed by hydrocarbon that has a higher boiling point. So, gradually, hydrocarbons can be separated from the mixture of crude oil.

Table 9.1 Crude Oil Distillation Process Being Factions Petroleum

The amount of distillate Atom C Applications

 Gas

Gasoline

Kerosene

Diesel

Lubricants

Residues 1 - 45-1011 - 1516-20

21-40

> 50 gas fuels, plastics, material kimiaBahan liquid fuel (gasoline), Materials kimiaBahan aircraft fuel, stove fuel, diesel fuel kimiaBahan materials, chemicals

Lubricants, candles, night (wax)

Asphalt, an anti-leak (waterproof)

Fraction of crude oil refining is the first out of the hydrocarbon compounds with low molecular mass, less than 70 sma. Faction is packaged in pressurized cylinders until melted. The results of treatment in this fraction is known as LPG (liquid petroleum gas). After all the factions teruapkan, the next fraction is the fraction of gasoline coming out. Temperatures were applied to remove this fraction ranged from 40-200 ° C. At these temperatures, hydrocarbons ranging from pentane to octane excluded from the distillation (see boiling point of pentane to octane). At room temperature, the form of the liquid fraction is colorless to slightly yellow and volatile. So on until all the fractions can be separated in stages based on differences in their boiling points. The results of the fractionation is leaving residue called solid black asphalt.

1. Petroleum cracking

To meet the needs of a particular product, long-chain hydrocarbons that can be broken down into shorter through the process of cracking (cracking). In contrast, short-chain hydrocarbons can be combined into longer chain (reforming). To increase the fraction of gasoline can be done by breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into fractions (C5-C9) through thermal cracking. Cracking process is carried out at a temperature of 500 ° C and a pressure of 25 atm. Saturated straight chain hydrocarbons such as kerosene (C12H26) can direngkahkan into two shorter fragments into compounds hexane (C6H14) and hexene (C6H12) C12H26 (l) → C6H14 (l) + C6H12 (l)

The presence of hexene (alkenes) from the results of thermal cracking to increase the octane number of 10 units. However, the products of the cracking process is generally less stable when stored for a long time. Because products are generally less stable thermally cracking the thermal cracking techniques replaced by catalytic cracking catalyst performed at high temperature and high pressure. Catalytic cracking, such as long-chain alkanes is reacted with a mixture of silicon (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3), plus hydrogen gas or a particular catalyst. In reforming, small molecules are combined into molecules is greater. This is done to increase the gasoline product. For example, butane and propane reacted to form heptane. The equation:

C4H10 (g) + C3H8 (g) → C7H16 (l) + H2 (g)

2. Numbers OktanMinyak Earth

Important fraction of petroleum is gasoline. Gasoline is used as a motor vehicle fuel (please see Figure 9.6). Approximately 10% of product distillate fractions of crude oil is gasoline with unbranched chains. In the high-pressure engine, burning straight gasoline chain uneven and shock waves that cause the engine knock occurs. If you leave this knock can lead to engine heat and can be easily damaged. Size distribution burning gasoline to prevent knock used the term octane. Octane number is the number ratio between the value of the gasoline knock knock value of the standard hydrocarbon mixture. Mixture of hydrocarbons that is used as an octane number is a standard n-heptane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentanes (isooctane). Octane to mix 87% isooctane and 13% n-heptane was set at 87 units. Terdapattiga octane measurement methods, namely:

a. measurements on high-speed and temperature, the results are expressed as the number oktanmesin;

b. measurements at moderate speeds, the result is called the research octane number;

c. pure hydrocarbon measurement, called the road octane index.

Some pure hydrocarbons are shown in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2 Numbers Octane Hydrocarbon

Hydrocarbons Octane Road Index Numbers

n-heptane 0

2-metilheptana 23

n-hexane 25

2-metilheksana 44

1-heptena 60

n-pentane 62

1-pentena 84

1-butene 91

Cyclohexane 97

2,2,4-trimethyl pentane 100

The higher the octane value, resistance to knock the stronger (no knock). It is owned by 2,2,4-trimethylpentanes (isooctane), whereas n-heptane has the highest knock. Because 2,2,4-trimethylpentanes has the highest octane number (100) and the lowest n-heptane (0) then mix the two compounds used as the standard for measuring octane. To obtain the highest octane number, rather than by the composition of the mixture is optimized also added an additive, such as tetraetillead (TEL) or Pb (C2H5) 4. The addition of 6 mL TEL into one gallon of gasoline to increase octane number of 15-20 units. Gasoline has been added TEL with octane number 80 is called premium gasoline. Another method to increase the octane number is a thermal reforming. This technique is used to convert straight-chain alkanes into branched alkanes and cycloalkanes. This technique is carried out at high temperature (500-600 ° C) and high pressure (25-50 atm).

3. Using Oil As Fuel

Most of the petroleum products used as fuel, good fuel in domestic, industrial and vehicle fuel. Fuel oil is used in household kerosene and LPG. Kerosene from kerosene fractions, whereas LPG from gas fraction. Besides being used as stove fuel, petroleum is also used as an automotive fuel. Petroleum products used as motor vehicle fuel is gasoline and diesel. Gasoline contains about hundreds of types of hydrocarbons with carbon chain number between 5 and 10. Diesel oil used as a fuel for diesel vehicles. There are three types of gasoline on the market, the premium, Pertamax and Pertamax plus. What is the difference between the premium and pertamax? Both types are distinguished from fuel octane number. Octane number states the number of beats in the resulting gasoline engine. The greater the octane number, the less the amount of knock. That is, the greater the octane number, the better the quality of gasoline. Octane value can be calculated using the following formula. Octane Numbers = (% isooctane × 100) + (% n-heptane × 100) Pertamax has an octane number greater than the premium. Pertamax octane number is 94, while the premium is only 88. Octane number can be improved through a variety of ways, including by adding TEL (tetra ethyl lead), MTBE (methyl tertiary ether buthyl), and HOMC (high octane mogas component). The addition of these substances can increase the octane number between 3-5 points.

4. Using Oil As Raw Materials Petrochemical Industry

In addition to fuel, oil can also be used as a base for the manufacture of other products. For example, plastics, explosives, detergents, nylon, urea, and methanol. The products of petroleum are called petrochemicals. A petrochemical industry can be made of a compound of alkenes (olefins), benzene and its derivatives (aromatic), and synthetic gas. The raw material for the petrochemical industry are produced from fractions of petroleum processing results. For more details, watch the following table.

Table 7.2 Raw Materials and Products Produced Petrochemical Industry

Example Petrochemical Raw Materials Petroleum Products Origin Faction Generated

Alkene compounds polythene Ethene gas fraction, ethanol, Polyvinylchloride

Propylene gas fraction Polypropylene

2-methyl propylene gas fraction MTBE

Benzene and its derivatives (aromatic) benzene naphtha fractions detergents, explosives

Synthetic Gas Methane Methanol gas fraction, urea

5. Impact Petroleum Product Combustion

Burning fuel can last two ways are perfect and imperfect combustion. Complete combustion produces considerable energy compared to incomplete combustion. But the resulting CO2 gas can cause the greenhouse effect (greenhouse effect). Combustion reaction:

CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g) + Energy

CO2 is a colorless gas, odorless, water-soluble, short-wave sunlight forward but resist the reflection of solar energy wavelengths (infrared light). If the number exceeds the threshold (greater than 330 ppm), it will cause shortness of breath and forming a "sheath" in the atmosphere. CO2 has the ability to withstand long-wave solar energy so that the heat can not be released into space. Events trapping sunlight by CO2 gas is called the greenhouse effect. As a result, the earth's temperature to rise or better known as global warming. Just imagine if the temperature of the earth is up, what happens? Is not ice at both poles of the earth will melt? Get imagine what impact the next?

Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels will produce soot that can contaminate equipment such as home appliances, engine, exhaust, and others. Thus accelerating damage to the device. It also produces CO gas that can cause poisoning. Imperfect combustion reaction:

2 CH4 (g) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO (g) + 4 H2O (g) + Energy

CO gas is a colorless gas, odorless, tasteless and soluble in water. CO gas has a higher holding capacity than oxygen to hemoglobin, so that human inhalation causes the blood contains more CO than oxygen. Symptoms that arise when CO gas poisoning are shortness of breath, decreased memory, decreased visual acuity, and a tired heart. The body will lack of oxygen supply, as a result of weakness, fainting, and even lead to death. Reaction:

CO (g) + Hb (aq) → HbCO (aq)

Burning fossil fuels also produces other pollutants such as sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), and dust particles. These gases if the entry in the air can cause acid rain. Gas SO2 is a colorless gas but the smell was overpowering and soluble in water. CO2 can be oppressive, painful eyes, and turn off the leaves because it is toxic to the chlorophyll. Gas SO2 and SO3 in the damp air can react with water vapor to form acid. Her reaction:

SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)

Reacts with O2 to form SO3 then reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid. Her reaction:

2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 SO3 (g)

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)

Sulfuric acid in the air humid rain water-soluble so that rain water is acidic, also known as acid rain. Acid rain can cause plants and animals that do not survive in the acidic conditions will die, and furniture from corroded metal. In addition to SO2 and SO3 gas, NO and NO2 gas can also cause acid rain. NO gas is a colorless gas but toxic. NO gas can react with O2 produces NO2. Her reaction:

2 NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2 NO2 (g)

NO2 is red brown, foul-smelling, easily soluble in water, and toxic. NO2 can cause cancer because it is carcinogenic. These gases also have the potential to be a greenhouse gas that can cause the greenhouse effect. NO and NO2 gas is also a catalyst in the decomposition of ozone in the stratosphere. Given the impact of oil and limited mineral resources in the world, so from now sought alternative energy such as:

1. licol / cleaned coal (source-News Special Bulletin for Citizens August 2006);

2. biodiesel from castor oil (source Junior-Suara Merdeka October 1, 2006);

3. biodiesel (ethanol from sugar cane, corn oil, palm oil);

4. biogas from compost / manure;

5. nuclear power;

6. geothermal energy / geothermal;

7. power falls;

8. sea ​​wave power;

9. wind power;

10. solar power.

ohms law

In most metallic conductor, current flows relationships with potential governed by Ohm's Law. Ohm using a series of simple experiments as shown below Ohm experiment. He (Ohm) using a series of potential sources in series, measuring the amount of current that flows and found a simple linear relationship and is known as Ohm's law. Ohm's law is a statement that the electric current flowing through a conductor is always proportional to the potential difference given to the conductor. A conductive object (conductor) is said to obey Ohm's law if the resistance value is not dependent on the polarity of the potential difference and given to the conductor. Although this statement is not always true for all types of conductors, however, the term "law" still used by historical reasons. Mathematically dapalam Ohm's Law can be expressed mathematically as the following equation. Where: V = voltage present at both ends of the conductor in units of volts I = electric current flowing in a conductor in amperes R = the value of the electrical resistance (resistance) contained in a conductor in units of ohms where R = V / I is called the resistance of the load. The name is very appropriate because R be a measure of how much the conductor put a halt to the flow of electrons. The series of experiments Experiment Ohm's Law ohm's law above is an electrical circuit that can be used to prove theorems or legal ohm. This law is found or coined by George Simon Ohm, a German physicist in 1825 and published in a paper entitled The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically in 1827. Ohm's law is limited to certain conditions, even the law does not apply if the temperature of the conductor is changed. For material - material or electronic devices such as diodes and transistors, the relationship I and V are not linear.

MAGNETIC FIELD

Magnetization (MAGNETOSTATIKA)

Objects that can attract iron called MAGNET.

Various kinds of magnets, among other things:

horseshoe magnet magnet magnet needle

Magnets can be obtained by artificial means.

If steel rub with a magnet, and a way of rubbing in a fixed direction, then it will be a magnet steel.

Steel or iron can also dimagneti by electric current.

Steel or iron was put into a coil of wire, and then into the electrified wire coil in the same direction. The ends of a magnet called the Magnetic Pole. Line connecting the poles of a magnet are called magnetic axis and the line perpendicular to the axis of the magnet and the magnet bisect a line called the axis.

A magnet hung in EAM. After equilibrium is reached, it turns bar magnet poles were facing north and south.

Magnetic poles facing north called North Pole.

Magnetic poles facing the South is called the South Pole.

The same thing can be encountered on the magnetic needle can rotate on the vertical axis (needle declination).

Arctic needle magnetic declination of a balanced approached the North pole magnet, the magnetic North Pole apparently contradictory needle. When it is brought near the south pole of the bar magnet, the magnetic north pole needle interested.

Conclusion: similar poles repel and poles are not similar attraction

If we hang some spikes on the ends of a bar magnet turns the number of spikes that can be attached at both magnetic poles just as much. The more to the center, the less the number of spikes that can be attached.

Conclusion: The strength of the magnetic poles of equal magnitude to the middle of the diminishing strength.

Coulomb's law.

Definition: The amount of repulsion or attractive forces between magnetic poles, strong poles proportional to each and inversely proportional to the square of the distance.

F = force of attraction / repel force in newtons.

R = distance in meters.

m1 and m2 strong magnetic poles in Ampere-meter.

 0 = permeability of vacuum.

Value = 107 Weber / A.m

Permeability value objects, it is not the same as the vacuum permeability.

Comparison between the permeability of a substance called vacuum permeability debgan relative permeability properties of matter.

 r

 r = relative permeability of a substance.

  = Permeability of matter

 0 = permeability of vacuum.

UNDERSTANDING THE MAGNETIC FIELD.

The magnetic field is the space around the magnetic poles, the gravity / magnetic departure is perceived by others.

Strong field (H) = ITENSITY.

Strong magnetic field at a point in the magnetic field is strong the force on a unit pole at that point in the magnetic field is strong m poles that cause magnetic field in Ampere-meter. R distance from the magnetic pole to the point in question in meters. and H = field strength in point: or in

The line style.

The line styles are: Trails in the North pole or the magnetic field lines to form such a strong field at each point is expressed by the tangent.

In line with this ideology, the lines of force out of the poles and into the South Pole. To create a pattern of lines of force can be by way of sprinkling iron filings around a magnet.

Draw the pattern lines of force.

Meeting Outline Style (FLUX DENSITY) = B

Definition: The number of lines of force per unit area perpendicular to the field strength.

Strong magnetic field at a point comparable to meeting the lines of force and inversely proportional to the permeability.

 B = meeting of the lines of force.

  = Permeability of matter.

 H = Strong magnetic fields.

note: meeting the lines of force magnetic induction states greatness.

Magnetic field lines of force meetings referred to: the magnetic field is uniform (homogeneous)

When meeting the lines of force in a homogeneous field B, the number of lines of force () which pierces the pants A m2 and flank angles with the field strength is: = BA Sin Satuanya: Weber.

Diamagnetic And The Magnetic.

With respect to the properties of magnetism and diamagnetic objects distinguished on the magnetic.

Magnetic objects: when placed in a magnetic field is not homogeneous, it ends experiencing a repulsive force so things will take a position perpendicular to the field strength. Such objects have a relative permeability values ​​less than one. Example: Bismuth, copper, gold, antimony, glass flinta.

Paramagnetic objects: when placed in a magnetic field is not homogeneous, it will take a position parallel to the direction of the field strength. Such objects have a relative permeability greater than one. Examples: Aluminum, platinum, oxygen, copper sulphate and more metal salts are paramagnetic substances.

Ferromagnetic objects: Objects that have a magnet effect a very large, very strongly drawn by a magnet and has a relative permeability up to several thousand. Example: Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and certain alloys (almico)

Impacts Occurring Due to Air Pollution

a. Extinction of Species

Pollutants are toxic to many kinds of animals and even turn it off. Various animal species have different immunity against pollutants. There are sensitive, some are resistant. Young animals and animal larvae are sensitive to contaminants. There are animals that can adapt so resistant to pollutants, some are not. Although animals adapt, to know that the level of animal adaptation has its limits. When the limit is exceeded, the animal will die.

Various bird species declining population. It is caused by insecticides. Insecticide dichloro diphenyl triklorometana (DDT) cause eggshell damage to many species of birds that bird eggs deform or fail to grow, for the mother bird feeds on insects contaminated.

b. Environmental Balance Disorders

Extinction of certain species can alter the pattern of interactions in an ecosystem. Food chains, food webs and energy flow changes. As a result, the balance of the disturbed

c. Toxicity and Disease

People who eat vegetables, fish, and contaminated food can be poisoned. There are straight away, there is a damaged liver, kidney, cancer, nervous system damage, and that causes defects in the offspring. Biological pollution can lead to the spread of germs.

d. Biological concentration

Pollutants entering the environment through the food chain and food web nets. Toxic materials are dumped into the water to seep into the body preformance algae. Furthermore ganging was eaten by small shrimp. Olh eat small shrimp in the big fish. And if the fish are caught and then eaten by humans, then the pollutants will enter into the human body.

Normally, pollutants entering the waters have small levels. This is because the pollutant is absorbed by the body ganging, the levels have risen hundreds and even thousands of times. Pollutants in the water levels are only 0.00007 ppm (ppm = parts per million which is part of the millionth of a gram), in the body preformance algae can be 0.007 ppm. Because of small shrimp eat algae cells not just one but many algae cells, then in the body of a small shrimp pollutant levels may be 0.7 ppm. In the body of the fish, pollutant levels were increased to 25 ppm. In the body of people who often eat fish, the levels of pollutants will increase to 75 ppm. The process of elevated levels of pollutants through the living body are known as biological concentration (in English known as biomagnification).

E. How to control and prevention of water pollution

The successful recovery of environmental conditions and ground water due to groundwater abstraction is determined by the integration and coordination of stakeholders in the management of groundwater (stakeholders). The technical aspects of disaster impact water uptake pemanfataan To minimize the negative impacts of groundwater, groundwater development necessary risk analysis and processing effects (risk assessment - risk management). Risk analysis includes the quantity and quality of groundwater, while managing the impact of the technical aspects and policy aspects

Similarly, among other items on Engineering Workshop Agreement Decision Impact Groundwater Management held at the Auditorium the Department of Energy and Mineral Resources, Jakarta. The deal generated after exposure preceded by the experts as well as a fairly deep discussions.

The workshop also agreed to achieve the sustainable use of its designation, groundwater should be considered as non-renewable resources (non-renewable resources). Publishing technical recommendation groundwater discharge, especially with the need to refer to the results of a thorough examination, for example, by applying risk analysis and management of impacts

Based on natural processes, including groundwater natural resources (renewable resources). However, if an interruption occurs, the recovery takes a long time. Groundwater can also be understood as a non-renewable resource (non-renewable resources) if the emphasis on social and economic sustainability are directly related to the use of (groundwater sustainability).

Including ground water situation in Indonesia has been degraded by poor water balance. It is necessary for prevention efforts. It is better than the response after the impact. Ground water extraction by pumping excess (overpumping) or junk exceed safe (safe yield) has been shown to negatively affect groundwater conditions and environments.

Negative impact due to groundwater abstraction exceeding safe junk preceded by subsidence of ground water continuously until the groundwater exceed safe. Another is the continuing impact of groundwater quality degradation due instrusksi seawater and groundwater pollution, and land subsidence due to ground subsidence (land subsidence).

Environmental degradation and groundwater conditions because of human intervention can be stopped if there is positive human intervention. That is the technical engineering of h in amounts less than or equal to the safe limit of ground water withdrawal. It should be immediately issued Government Regulation on Groundwater that policies and regulations at the local level can have the same direction and perpenanggulangan impact groundwater abstraction that aims to restore the condition of the soil and water environment.

Technical engineering applications has memsyarakat include infiltration wells, infiltration trenches, where, ponds and so on. For example, irrigation area, the fields and especially the canal channel system without lining, has been shown to make a major contribution in improving the groundwater catchment (groundwater storage).

To prevent negative impacts groundwater abstraction can be done by utilizing water tanasepsi.tanah need to be considered in the preparation of groundwater management policies.

DEFINITIONS ORDER REACTION

1. DEFINITIONS ORDER REACTION

Reaction order is the number of factors that affect the concentration of reactants reaksi.Penentuan order reaction rate can not be derived from the equation but can only be determined by experiment. A reaction experimentally derived reaction rate expressed by the formula:

v = k (A) (B) 2

The equation implies first-order reaction to a substance A and a second order reaction to a substance B. In keselurahan reaction is third order reaction.

Order of reaction or a reaction to a component level are powers of concentration of these components in the rate law. For example, v = k [A] m [B] n, where m = 1 we say that the reaction is first order on A. If n = 3, the third-order reaction against B.. Order total is the sum of all the components in the order rate equation: n + m + ....

Rank m and n are determined from experimental data, the price is usually small and not always the same as the coefficients a and b. This means that there is no relationship between the amount of reactants and reaction with the reaction order coefficient. Broadly speaking,

Characteristics and Changes Affected by Air Pollution

Chemical properties of water-physics generally tested and can be used to determine the level of water pollution are:

 pH, acidity and alkalinity.

 Temperature

 Dissolved Oxygen

 Carbon dioxide-free

 The color and turbidity

 Total solids

 Nitrate

 Ammonia

 Phosphate

 electrical conductivity

 Chloride

1. PH value, acidity and alkalinity

Normal pH value of the water is around neutral, which is between 6 to 8. While the pH of the contaminated water, such as wastewater (effluent), vary depending on the type of waste.

The fresh water from the mountains usually have a higher pH. The longer the water pH will drop to acidic conditions. This increase in organic material which liberates CO2 when undergoing a process of decomposition.

Industrial wastewater inorganic materials generally contain high amounts of mineral acid so that the acid is high or low pH. The existence of iron-sulfur component (FeS2) in high amounts in the water will also increase the acidity, as FeS2 with air and water to form H2SO4 and iron (Fe) soluble.

Changes in acidity in wastewater, either towards alkaline (pH up) or to the acid (pH down), would greatly disrupt the lives of fish and aquatic animals. In addition, waste water has a low pH is highly corrosive to steel and often result in a rusty iron pipes.

The relationship between waste sources and characteristics.

Characteristics of Waste Resources

Physics:

• Colors organic materials, industrial waste dn domestic

• Odour Decomposition of industrial waste

• The solid source of water, industrial wastewater and domestic

• The temperature industrial and domestic waste

Chemistry:

Organic

• Carbohydrates Waste industrial, commercial and domestic

• Waste oils and fats industry, trade and domestic

• Pesticide Waste agricultural

• Waste Penol industry

Inorganic

• Alkaline water sources, domestic waste, infitrasi ground water, waste water boiler

• Chloride Water sources, industrial waste, water attenuation

• Heavy metals industry wastes

• Nitrogen agricultural and domestic waste

• Industrial waste pH

• Phosphorus industrial waste, domestic and natural

• Sulfur industrial and domestic waste

• toxic materials trade and industrial waste

Biology:

• Domestic Waste Virus

2. Temperature

Water is often used as a cooling medium in a variety of industrial processes. The cooling water will get hot after use of the material is cooled, then returned to their original place. Rising water temperatures will rise due to the following:

 The reduced amount of oxygen dissolved in the water.

 Increased speed of chemical reactions.

 Disruptive fish life and other aquatic animals.

 If the lethal temperature limits are exceeded, fish and other aquatic animals may die.

Fish that live in water that has a relatively high temperature will increase the speed of respiration. In addition, the high temperatures will also reduce the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water. Consequently akn fish and aquatic animals die from lack of oxygen. Times the temperature of the water or wastewater is relatively high among others, marked by the emergence of the fish and other aquatic animals to the surface to find oxygen.

3. Dissolved Oxygen

Oxygen gas is odorless, tasteless, and only slightly soluble in water. To sustain life, creatures that live in the water, plants and animals depend on oxygen dissolved. So the levels of dissolved oxygen can be used as benchmarks for water quality menenukan. Aquatic life can survive if there is a minimum dissolved oxygen as much as 5 ppm (5 parts per million or 5 mg of oxygen for every liter of water). The rest depends on the robustness organime, the degree of its activity, the presence of contaminants, water temperature, and so on.

4. Carbon dioxide in water

Constantly exchanging carbon dioxide from the air to that in water if the water and air contact, the prose is a little exchange happened is diffusion. If the water is wavy then the exchange will be more.

If the rain falls to the ground and the soil carbon dioxide then met again with rain water would be more acidic. If it is then in contact with limestone CaCO3, there will be an acid salt form.

Carbon is one of the elements that had cycling in the ecosystem. At the start of atmospheric carbon moves through producers, consumers and decomposers, then back into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, carbon bound in CO2. After going through the process of photosynthesis in the compound bound glokosa or other carbon compounds. These compounds are preyed upon by decomposers then back into the atmosphere.

5. Color and turbidity

Water color varies widely found in nature, such as water swamps yellow, brown, or green. The river water is usually brownish yellow because they contain mud.

Waste water containing iron (Fe) in a high number of reddish brown. Water color is not normal is usually an indication of water pollution.

Water color divided into two kinds:

• True color (true color) caused by dissolved materials.

• Color pseudo (apparent color) which in addition caused by dissolved substances, as well as suspended materials, including the nature of colloids.

Turbidity exhibit optical properties of water, which resulted in the refraction of light into the water. Turbidity limit the entry of light into the water. This turbidity is due to the material of the float, and the unraveling of certain substances, such as organic materials, microorganisms, Mud clay and other substances that bring out or terapun and very subtle. The more turbid the water, the higher the electrical conductivity and the more padatannya.

6. Solids

Solids in the water comprising organic and inorganic solids dissolved. Precipitated or suspended. This material will settle to the bottom of the water, which will eventually lead to siltation of the bottom of the container receiver. Another result of the solid growth of aquatic plants is limited and can be toxic to other creatures. The number indicates the number of mud solids contained in the water.

Basically always contaminated water containing solids, which can be divided into four groups based on the particle and other properties, particularly solubility are:

• terendap solids (sediment) are solids that can be directly precipitated if the water is not disturbed for a while. Padata that settles it

• Suspended solids and colloidal

• Total Dissolved Solids

• Oils and fats

a) solids terendap

Terendap solids or solids contained sediment that settles directly if the water is not disturbed for a while. Sediment contained in the water are usually formed as a result of erosion, and is commonly found in the solid surface waters. The presence of high amounts of sediment in the water will be very harmful for the following matters:

• Causes clogging drains and sewers, and may also precipitate out of the water tank to reduce the volume of water in the tub can accommodate them.

• The sediment at the bottom of a river or lake will reduce populations of fish and other aquatic animals because the eggs of fish and other food sources may be submerged in the sediment.

• Causes turbidity.

b) teruspensi solids and colloidal

Trunspensasi solids are solids that cause turbidity, insoluble and can not directly precipitate, consisting of particles smaller size and weight of the sediments, such as clay, certain organic materials, the cells of microorganisms, and sebagainya.air food industry waste, especially fermentation industry, and industry tekstl solids containing relatively high amounts trunspensasi.

c) Dissolved Solids

Dissolved solids are solids that have ukura smaller than suspended solids. The solids consist of organic compounds and inorganic dissolved in water, minerals and salts garamnya.Padatan total dissolved solids concentration reflects the amount of water in a sample. Total dissolved solids can be more quickly determined debgan smpel measuring electrical conductivity of water. The degree of conductivity of water is proportional to the total dissolved solids in the water.

d) Oil and grease

Oil and water polluting lamak often input into the solids, which holds on the surface of the water. The oil contained in the water can come from various sources, including from pembersuhan and washing in laut.Terdapat ships in two kinds of emulsion formed between oil and water, the oil-in-water emulsions and emulsions in minyek. Oil-in-water emulsions occur if oil droplets dispersed in water and stabilized by chemical intereksi berombak.Pencemaran where water water water by oil is very harmful because it can cause some of the following:

• The resulting oil oil penetration into the water is reduced.

• The concentration of dissolved oxygen decreases with the oil because the oil film layer inhibits uptake of oxygen by the water.

• There is a layer of oil on the surface of the water will disrupt the lives of aquatic birds because the birds were swimming and diving.

7. Nitrate

The conversion of free nitrogen in the air into nitrates can dilakukun biologically and chemically. This transformation is called fisasi (binding) nitrogen.Halilintar result of chemical nitrogen fixation. Bolt through the air providing enough energy to bring nitrogen and oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide NO2. This gas reacts with water to form nitric NO3 asm. plants and animals that have died will be described protein by spoilage organisms into ammonia and ammonium compounds. Nitrogen in feces and urine into ammonia will end well.

8. Phosphorus

Daurnya journey similar to phosphorus in nitrogen cycle. In aquatic ecosystems, there are three forms namely phosphorus phosphorus compounds, such as ortoposfat inorganic, organic compounds in potoplasma, and as dissolved organic compounds that are formed due to dirt or body mengurai.Seperti organisms as nitrogen, phosphorus entering the water through various roads: dirt, waste , agricultural residues, animal manure, and the rest of the dead plants and animals. Phosphorus pollution prevention can be done by restricting the use diterjen containing phosphate.

Business letter writing phrases

Yours faithfully or Yours sincerely; Dear Sir or Dear Mr

On this page we look at important phrases for writing letters and emails, such as when to use Yours faithfully and Yours sincerely, Dear Sir, Dear Madam, and so forth.

You know how important it is to speak good English in an international working environment. If you work for a company which does business abroad, you probably read and write a lot of English, too. Writing, like speaking, is communication. When writing letters and emails we need the skills to be able to express ourselves well and with the correct level of formality.

Do you have that skill? Ask yourself these questions:

§  Do you present yourself in a professional manner when you write?

§  What image do you give to the people who read your letters and emails?

In short, you want to give a professional image when you write to your customers and business partners. To get you started, we’ve prepared some lists of standard phrases:

10 good opening lines

We need an opening line in a business letter or professional email:
to make reference to previous correspondence; to say how we found the recipient’s name/address; to say why we are writing to the recipient.

§  With reference to your letter of 8 June, I … .

§  I am writing to enquire about … .

§  After having seen your advertisement in … , I would like … .

§  After having received your address from … , I … .

§  I received your address from … and would like … .

§  We/I recently wrote to you about … .

§  Thank you for your letter of 8 May.

§  Thank you for your letter regarding … .

§  Thank you for your letter/e-mail about … .

§  In reply to your letter of 8 May, … .

10 good closing lines

We need a closing line in a business letter or email:
to make a reference to a future event; to repeat an apology; to offer help

§  If you require any further information, feel free to contact me.

§  I look forward to your reply.

§  I look forward to hearing from you.

§  I look forward to seeing you.

§  Please advise as necessary.

§  We look forward to a successful working relationship in the future.

§  Should you need any further information, please do not hesitate to contact me.

§  Once again, I apologise for any inconvenience.

§  We hope that we may continue to rely on your valued custom.

§  I would appreciate your immediate attention to this matter.

‘Yours faithfully’ or ‘Yours sincerely’ in a business letter?

When the recipient’s name is unknown to you:

§  Dear Sir … Yours faithfully

§  Dear Madam … Yours faithfully

§  Dear Sir or Madam … Yours faithfully

When you know the recipient’s name:

§  Dear Mr Hanson … Yours sincerely

§  Dear Mrs Hanson … Yours sincerely

§  Dear Miss Hanson … Yours sincerely

§  Dear Ms Hanson … Yours sincerely

When addressing a good friend or colleague:

§  Dear Jack … Best wishes/Best regards

Addressing whole departments:

§  Dear Sirs … Yours faithfully